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Autoren: [[Benutzer:Hschwarz|Hans-Jürgen Schwarz]], [[Benutzer:AHusen|Anika Husen]]
<br> back to [[Polarized light microscopy]]


== Abstract  ==
Birefringence or double refraction is a phenomenon in which a light ray decomposes into two rays, when it passes through the boundary surface of an optically anisotropic body. The two rays have a varying speed of light, depending on the direction of the wave propagation within the body. One of these rays is refracted normally (ordinary ray) and the other undergoes a change in direction (extraordinary ray). The [[retardation|path difference]] that arises between the two rays of different speeds, leads to interference colors. The majority of salts are anisotropic, i.e. a ray will expierience birefringence. Only materials with an interior structure that is attributed to the cubic crystal system are isotropic.
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== Introduction  ==
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== Anisotropic bodies ==
Salts form crystals from different [[Crystal system|crystal systems]], and their atoms are arranged in a crystal lattice. Specific lattice structures respectively have  different optical properties. These become apparent, amongst others, in the propagation speed- when the light waves pass through the lattice. In optically anisotropic bodies the propagation speed depends on the direction of the radiation within the lattice. 
In the case of anisotropic crystals the light is not only refracted, but also split into two shear waves, which are characterized through differing speeds and thereby differing refractions. This phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence (delta).
If light waves enter an anisotropic medium, not only birefringence, but also polarization takes place: both shear waves are altered in their vibration mode to such a degree that they are oriented perpendicularly to each other and vibrate only to one direction. They are now linearly polarized.
On examination of a model in which, beginning from the center, all speeds of light of a mineral are applied in every spatial direction, the enclosing shell forms a sphere that belongs to the cubic crystal system. This model is called indicatrix.
The indicatrix of a hexagonal, trigonal and tetragonal crystal system exhibits a biaxial ellipsoid of revolution. These minerals are described as optically uniaxial. The indicatrix of other crystal systems (rhombic, monoclinic, triclinic) is a three axes ellipsoid with two optical axes of isotropy.
== Refractive Index- birefringence ==
For describing the transmission speed, the term optical density (absorbance) is used, where bodies with a higher optical density have a lower speed of light. The value of the refraction/refractive index describes the ratio of the speed of light inside a vacuum and inside the examined body. The speed of light in the vacuum is fastest, so that all refractive indices of other materials are smaller than 1. The difference between the highest and lowest refractive index of a crystal is known as birefringence. <br>   
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" style="border: 1px solid black;" align="center"
|- 
| bgcolor="yellow" align="center"| <math>n_x = \frac{c_{Light}}{c_x}</math>
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| bgcolor="yellow" | n<sub>x</sub> = Refraction of light, C<sub>Light</sub> = Speed of light in the vacuum, c<sub>x</sub> = Speed of light in the material X 
|} 
[[file:Mueller-Indikatrix1.jpg|thumb|350px|left|'''A: Ray- velocity surface''' For each ray direction the value of the speed is to be plotted from the centre. The result is a spherical shell with the radius v.  ' '''B: Indicatrix''' For each ray direction the value of the refraction of light is to be plotted parallel to the vibration direction and perpendicular to the ray. The result is a spherical shell with the radius n. Each ray direction has an infinite amount of possible vibration directions.<bib id="Raith.etal:2009"></bib>]]
Birefringence also takes place on optically anisotropic (non- cubic) crystals but it differs from the simple refraction of light. Refraction of light takes place at every boundary surface, between optically varyingly dense media that cause a deflection of the ray direction and the splitting into spectral colors. Birefringence is associated with a change in wavelength and the change of direction depending on it. 
When birefringence takes place, the polarized light at the boundary surface of the crystal is split into two light paths. These have undergone a change in polarization along the perpendicularly orientated transmission planes. Ordinary and extraordinary rays are formed. The ordinary ray is refracted with the constant refractive index (n<sub>o</sub>). The extraordinary ray has its polarization direction perpendicular to the ordinary ray and a refractive index (n<sub>e</sub>), that is dependent of its direction inside the crystal. The graphical representation of the different refractive indices into all spacial directions is the indicatrix.
[[file:Mueller-Indikatrix2.jpg|thumb|350px|left| taken from <bib id="Raith.etal:2009"></bib>]] Therefore the refractive indices are shown as vectors taken from one point into all directions. Their length corresponds to each respective refractive index. When looking at optically uniaxial crystals,  the indicatrix forms a spheroid with the optical axis as axis of the ellipsoid. The indicatrix of optically biaxial crystals forms a complicated double-shell model, and cubic systems produce a sphere.
== Ordinary- extraordinary ray  ==
Between the two rays that travel at different speeds, a path difference or retardation occurs. The path difference leads to a positive interference for the wave length, and the integer multiple of the wave lengths causes the retardation. Therefore the crystal appears in a specific color, described as the interference color.
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== Extinction  ==
Depending on the orientation of the transmission plane of the crystal, it can be located in the dark (extinct) or in the bright position. The dark position re-appears four times at 90°, when rotating the crystal on the object table. In this position the transmission directions of the crystals are the same as the direction of the microscope polarizers. This results in the light not being re-polarized by the crystal, because light rays already vibrate inside a transmission plane, when they strike the crystal. Thus, the extraordinary ray is eliminated and the light meets the analyzer with simple polarization and perpendicular to its transmission plane. For this reason, the light, that has passed through the crystal in this way, does not pass through the analyzer and does not contribute to the visible image. This phenomenon is called extinction.
When the crystal is orientated so, that none of its transmission planes are parallel to the polarizer, birefringence or double refraction takes place. The elliptically polarized light that meets the analyzer is directed through the analyzer into a vibration plane making the crystal visible. The color of the crystal depends on the retardation produced by the crystal. The retardation is determined by the difference of the refractive indices in the direction of light transmission and therefore the value of birefringence. The intensity of the retardation is also affected by the thickness of the crystal, which makes out the distance the ray has to travel within the material. 
The orientation of the dark position depends on the properties of the crystal lattice and it is therefore possible to draw conclusions about the crystal system. If, in the dark position, the crystal exhibits a '''parallel''' or perpendicular orientation towards the horizontal line, which is recognizable through the orientation of the cleavage planes or the habitus, this is referred to as '''symmetrical''' or '''parallel extinction'''. If the orientation is in the dark position, but not parallel nor perpendicular to the horizontal line, the extinction behavior is called '''inclined extinction'''. Estimating the extinction angle can help to accurately identify a mineral.
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== Interference colors  ==
In order to identify a phase, the examination of interference colors can be useful. These become visible under crossed polarizers and occur due to [[retardation]], which is produced by birefringence. Depending on the magnitude of retardation, the crystal appears in a specific color in the dark field. The color appearance stands in relation to the wavelength, which undergoes a positive interference due to the retardation of the doubly refracted light. Hence, color and retardation is dependent on the refractive indices and on the thickness of the crystal. If the approximate thickness of the crystal is known, the refractive indices can be estimated by examining the interference colors. In doing so, the bright position, i.e. the maximum birefringence is examined. For this purpose, it is recommended to use a color chart after Michel-Lévy <ref>http://www.zeiss.com/C1256CFB00332E16/0/FECC5775A0897BCCC1256D08002A4E39/$file/46-0014_d.pdf gelesen 28.07.2010 </ref>. It shows the correlation between interference colors or respectively the retardation and the refractive indices in dependence of the thickness of the object.
== Weblinks ==
<references />
== Literature  ==
<biblist/>
[[Category:Light Microscopy]] [[Category:Husen,Anika]] [[Category:Bearbeitung]] [[Category:R-MSteiger]] [[Category:R-CBlaeuer]]
[[User:SLeithaeuser|SLeithaeuser]] 16:50, 21 March 2012 (CET)
[[User:SLeithaeuser|SLeithaeuser]] 16:50, 21 March 2012 (CET)

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SLeithaeuser 16:50, 21 March 2012 (CET)

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